GROUPING
STUDENTS IN CLASSROOM ACCORDING TO INTELLIGENCE TYPE:
A
New Approach to Accelerate University students’ Learning Process
Riza
Amelia
Staf pengajar PBI Fakultas Tarbiyah UIN Suska Riau,
HP: 081275801087
Abstrak
Tulisan ini mencoba untuk memaparkan
kecerdasan ganda sebagai pendekatan dalam memecahkan masalah belajar dan untuk
mempercepat pembelajaran siswa dengan memanfaatkan kecerdasan sebagai basis belajar.
Siswa dalam hal ini akan tampil lebih baik dan jauh dari masalah belajar umum
seperti kebosanan dan frustrasi. Sebagai
hasilnya, mereka akan mengalami peningkatan dalam kepercayaan diri untuk
terlibat dalam masyarakat. Pengaturan belajar dalam tulisan ini mendesain ulang
kebutuhan belajar siswa. Partisipasi siswa melakukan pembelajaran aktif akan
terasa nyaman nyaman dengan perubahan ruang kelas di mana semua siswa bisa bersenang-senang
dan memperoleh percaya diri.
Kata Kunci: Pengelompokan Siswa, Jenis Kecerdasan,
Proses Belajar Mahasiswa di Perguruan Tinggi
1. INTRODUCTION
Multiple
intelligences tell that no student is stupid. All students are smart but in
different areas. The treatment from environment either at home or school govern
the destiny of the smart whether developed or disappear. This idea gains more
popularity each day. More teachers and parents, who believe that human being
should be smart, pay attention to this nurturing approach by Prof. Howard
Gardner. They put it into practice in their field, both when teaching arrangement
and solving students’ problems.
Every
student, either labeled smart or slow, owns multiple intelligences, at least
nine intelligences, with them in different amount. They are verbal-linguistic,
logical-mathematical, kinesthetic, musical, visual-spatial, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, naturalist, and spiritual. If parents and teachers dedicate
their teaching to develop some intelligences, then they would follow figures,
for examples, Prophet Muhammad SAW who was a fine shepherd, trader, wrestler, orator,
and leader; or Leonardo Da Vinci who was a scientist, artist, and athlete; or
Alicia Keys who is genius both in education and artist career, or from
Indonesia, Tompi who works as a surgeon and popular jazz song writer and
singer. These people might have parents with similar skills in their blood, or
grow-up environment that support the exercises of the intelligences become
major strengths.
The
development of one intelligence becomes a very outstanding ability have been
viewed through famous figures of every field. In every number of sport, art,
science, etc there are legends either living or dead. They are people who have
given their life to develop their intelligence since very early. Muhammad Ali
is always remembered as the greatest boxer ever, Albert Einstein is remembered
as the father of modern physics, and Rumi the most influential poet-sufis.
Student
learning style and preferences in the school is influenced by the state of the
intelligences. Some students can learn very well from hearing
teacher-explanation, some other might learn better when observing teacher-body
language. Some others only understand after they do some exercises of
experiment. Some students like number. Some students like words. Some students
like graphs. Some students love music and rhythm in their any activity. Some
others like peer-work and hang out together. Some students like to work alone.
Some students like pictured and colored wall around. Some others like to study
with their pet. Some students like to contemplate and think about the meaning
behind things. If students are asked to perform learning in these ways, not
teacher way, they would enjoy it.
Teaching techniques in current university
classrooms mostly side to verbal-linguistics and logical mathematical
preference, such as lecturing, and student small group conference. Adolescents
and adult are regarded mature learners, where those teaching techniques are
thought fit. As the consequence, whatever subject university students take the
same learning repeats and repeats. The students who like it perform better in
the class, but the number is relatively small to entire class. Learning in
university is stiff and boring for most students.
On
the other hand, university students are expected to develop their verbal communication
and analytic skills as important skills of intellectual community. They are
assigned in groups of discuss. Small
group conference is applied since the first semester. Lecturers tell the
students the important of talking during learning and award some score on
students’ grade to motivate them. This seems to work for lecturers’ release.
But in its progress, this technique has to improve if not to lose its
effectiveness.
Most
students raise questions just to earn the score. Minor students feel exhausted
with thick reading. Motivation in studying is up and down. Whereas, some
scholars insist that learning should be fun and enjoyable. Happy learning is
regarded only for children. However, students of any level would love it. Some
innovations need to make in the classrooms. Some lecturers and researchers
write reports of their efforts through education journals and forums.
Multiple
intelligences are paradigm that tells in general what educators can do with the
intelligences. Students’ group-work conform it. Through peering, lecturers can
assign different tasks and exercises multi intelligences. Students can
participate greater as each gets a responsibility on his/her shoulder in the
group. Excitement becomes possible to occur because students do activities
which are based on their interest.
2. STUDENT
GROUP-WORK
One
way to get university students complete their assignment is to get them working
in groups. Grouping students is a part of cooperative leaning
strategies. In here, student-grouping is decided by different means.
They are challenged to solve problems given by using their present resources
and spread excitements in the classroom. Students can help one another happily
as a part to develop their social need. Lecturers take function as facilitator.
Students may ask their lecturer or friends. They finish lesson while developing
friendship. One another take turns to expose thought. By this arrangement,
students can learn from both the lecturer and their friends (Olsen and Kagan,
1992)[1].
Mistakes
and success become routines students are accustomed. Students challenge each
others to develop cognitive and affective area. Students remind if friends are
not clear. They work to produce good delivering as the lecturers demand to. They
learn everyone’s strengths and weaknesses as diversity in community. Diversity
is something advantageous, where everyone has different talents. By working in
friendly groups, students are relaxed, active and energetic. Collaboration
among peers extent and expand individual’s cognitive growth (Forman and Cazden,
1985)[2].
A basis to support student group work is that the students learn best when they
learn through social interaction (Vygotsky, 1978)[3].
It promotes academic achievement, social and personal development, and language
skills as well as motivation, confidence, interest of the study, and
cooperation (Jacobs and Ratmanida, 1996)[4].
Student
group-work is a part of Cooperative Learning. It is a student-centered learning
which gives five main advantages to students (Johnson & Johnson, 1986)[5]:
a.
Face-to-face interaction
Students
can argue, elaborate, explain, and negotiate their idea.
b.
Positive interdependence
Students
develop awareness toward each other. They work together to complete assignment
and to gain understanding.
c.
Teaching of social skills
Communication,
conflict management, decision –making, trust building, and leadership are
skills students continuously exercise.
d.
Individual accountability
In
group work, individual responsibility to complete his/her part of assignment
e.
Group processing
The
aim of grouping is to finish the task together and then be able to review what
worked and did not work.
Some
studies report that student grouping give positive effect towards student’s
achievement in solving problem (Slavin, 1992)[6].
They get more friends, voluntarily involvement, and increase learning
motivation (Lazarowitz et al, 1996)[7].
Students in group activities gain new experiences, ideas and inspirations,
where their way of thinking be more creative, developed, and mature (Gillies,
2002)[8].
According to Lake Oswelgo School’s (2002)[9] guidelines,
reasons for grouping are:
a. to provide opportunities for working with peers of similar ability
b. to provide intellectual challenge and support for special needs through differentiated
content and/or processes
c. to channel social energy
d. to create a variety of role opportunities
e. to simulate motivation and enhance expressive learning
f. to share tasks
g. to match students with same or similar interests
h. to provide opportunities to practice social skills
i.
to provide opportunities for students to interact
j.
to provide team building opportunities
Matching students with similar interest may
give them wider opportunity to explore their interest. They can discuss further
their unique ideas, which cannot be done if they are in different views. Students need opportunity to explore how far
they can go with the challenges of task. Their past grouping probably rested on
random interest as popular method to give heterogenic environment. Therefore, the following gives some criteria
for grouping (Lake Oswelgo School, 2002)[10], they
are:
a.
Potential or capacity
Students with
similar ability in terms of demonstrated potential or capacity may be grouped
together to learn content at a modified pace and/or differentiated level of
abstraction and complexity.
b.
Content knowledge
Prior knowledge
of particular content may be used to place students in a group together or have
them spread among several groups. Also, the need to learn content knowledge may
place students in a learning group, including whole class or interdisciplinary
team.
c.
Skill development
Students who
demonstrate a need to learn a skill or develop proficiency with a skill may be
grouped together.
d.
Work habits
The quality of
work habits may be used to place students in heterogeneous groups in order to
broaden overall exposure to good modeling.
e. Social
Differentiating
social behaviors may help place leaders, followers, talkers, and so forth, in
certain groups.
f.
Student choice
Providing
students with opportunities to practice decision-making and acceptance of
responsibility for choices is an appropriate criterion for forming some types
of learning groups.
g.
Interests
Students who
share the same interests may be placed in the same group for a project or
activity.
h.
Task/activity
The
task/activity criteria may dictate that certain students work together because
they succeed best through certain kinds of projects.
i.
Random
Sometimes random
selection techniques, such as numbering-off, drawing lots, and so forth, are
the most useful procedures to use in forming groups.
Many
lecturers still use arrangement by random instead of structured in grouping the
students. One reason because lecturers do not really have criteria for grouping.
They meet the students for one semester and meet other students in next
semester. The most popular random way in forming group are by numbering-off and
by attendance list. However, the lecturers may consider the following
strategies to facilitate grouping plan (Focus on Effectiveness, 2005)[11] in the class, even though
when the decision is homogenous grouping:
- Create
the right type of group for the need. Sometimes an occasional informal ad
hoc group is needed, such as pair and share. Base groups are formed for
long-term social and interpersonal support. Formal learning groups are
used when a commitment of time and effort is required.
- Keep
group size small. Ideally, learning groups include no more than four
students. Base groups may be larger, up to six students.
- Use
ability grouping sparingly. Students across the spectrum of abilities
benefit by heterogeneous grouping, especially low-ability students.
- Don't
use cooperative learning for all instructional goals. While cooperative
learning is a powerful strategy, it can be overused, or misapplied.
Students need time to investigate ideas and pursue interests on their own.
- Use a
variety of strategies when choosing students for groups. Many selection
strategies (common clothing, favorite colors, letters in names, birthdays)
will work when attempting to randomly group students.
- Facilitate
success. Develop organizational tools, forms, learning journals, and other
structuring documents that foster the smooth processes needed for
effective cooperation and group work. Use online tools for ubiquitous
access to forms.
- Support new groups.
Cooperative learning is a practiced skill that requires monitoring and
adjustment. Teach specific skills before grouping students, define
criteria for success, and develop rubrics for key expectations. Meet with
new group members to support their success.
Heterogeneous
grouping here is heterogenic ability. While, homogenous interest is
recommended. The recognition of multiple intelligences gives the opportunity of
collaboration, either by grouping students together by having the same
intelligence profile or by having different intelligence profiles.
Grouping students because they have the same intelligence profile can help them
further develop their strong areas of intelligence, while grouping students
with different intelligence profiles can help each other in developing the
areas that they are weak in (Moran et al., 2006)[12].
3. MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES (MI)
According
to Islam faith, human being is the best creature among all creatures. God has given
humankind a high position as the leader of earth. Logically, to carry out the
great function, humankind must be equipped with outstanding abilities. Howard
Gardner, the proclaimer of multiple intelligences, believes that every child is
intelligent. This idea seems logical, even though some other scholars call it
as part of g factor, statistic item
for measuring general intelligence in psychometrics. Whether this idea soothes
those who fail in IQ test, but more and more educators apply the idea in their
work field. Just type the key word on search engine, hundreds results come out
within second.
Way
to raise the child determines whether the intelligences are developed or not. However,
Prophet Muhammad SAW, has bequeathed Muslim parents to raise their children in a
way that nurture the intelligences.
"Obligation
of parents to their children is giving good names, priming well behaviors,
teaching swimming, archery, horse riding, feeding with good food and put them
into marriages when they are adult." (H. R. Hakim).
According to hadith above
parents must teach their children multiple skills since early. Giving good name
and teaching well behaviors is exercises of verbal-linguistic and
interpersonal, swimming is kinesthetic, archery is logical-mathematical and
kinesthetic, and horse riding is natural and kinesthetic. The prophet, in his
history life, was an example of multi intelligences figure. He was known as a
fine orator, thinker, leader, athlete and person with noble personality.
Hence, intelligences may define as talents
or natural abilities built inside every human being as gifts from God to
function excellent in his/her life. Yet,
being excellent in only one area has put many individuals to the peak of
success. For example, legends in sport, art, science, or social life are genius
who good only for their field. Say, Muhammad Ali.
Edu Center (2006)[13] sums the nine intelligences from Howard Gardner as follow.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the intelligence of motor action and fine
motor skill, the intelligence of athletes, dancers, and anyone who relies on
physical skill. Interpersonal intelligence is that which corresponds with
social behavior, empathy, and verbal pragmatics – simply the intelligence on
relating with other people. Intrapersonal intelligence is the intelligence of
individual reflection the type usually used by monks, writers, and
psychologists. Logical-mathematical intelligence is the capacity for, as the
name suggests, the challenges of logic and mathematics, the kind being employed
by scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers. Verbal-linguistic intelligence
is the intelligence of communication, of the written and spoken word,
prevalently under the domain of writers, novelists, orators, and teachers.
Visual-spatial intelligence is the language of the architect, the painter, and
the engineer – skill in the form and function of visuals. Musical intelligence,
well, it is the skill of the musician, the singer, and the conductor, and the
capacity for the discrimination and production of musical sounds. Naturalistic
intelligence is the intelligence of Darwin, or the capacity to understand and
make meaning out of natural and biological phenomena. Spiritual intelligence is
fashioned after the wisdom of religious leaders, and is said to be the capacity
to recognize the divine.
Many
of MI practitioners are educators of young children up to middle school
teachers. They are groups who thirsty with creative ways to teach their
students. Many books and articles written address students of this range of age
as the object. Yet, the theory of
multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and
development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use
of their most highly developed intelligences. For example, the highly
bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job
when he or she would be much happier in a job where they could move around,
such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist. The
theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their
lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (Amstrong, 1998).[14]
Therefore,
in universities, more lecturers seek ways to apply MI. They want to make the
learning fun, where the students are studying pleasantly and attend instruction
objectives successfully. MI at the same time, exercises the intelligences
within the students. Therefore, researches of theses and dissertations discuss
MI as new route of studies. However, universities have more problems to solve
with MI than the educational levels below. The students are going to throw
themselves in real society life immediately. They should be ready to work and
use what they have learned in university to survive. If the students were
passive learners and studied little knowledge, they would have trouble to adapt
to working demand. MI says that everyone has his/her own learning style as the
strengths. The lectures just need to adjust the learning to meet the students’
learning style.
In
classroom based MI programs (Viens,
1999)[15] learning
modes address three goals: create opportunities
for students across a range of intelligences (exploration); give students
intensive opportunities in areas of strength (talent development); and create
more individualized or personalized education by more directly addressing
students’ intellectual strengths in their curriculum (using strengths). In the
class, the lecturers could attend the first goal by having design which
exercises all intelligences; second goal by giving different tasks to each
intelligence group(s); third goal by giving individual project to each
student. Yet, the following approaches
and activities are suggestions to address these goals (Viens, 1999)[16].
a.
Providing a
variety of curricular options. This approach is
related to providing students with exposure to and experience across
intelligences. Students can hone skills and experience success in the classroom
(strength areas), and teachers and students have the opportunity to uncover
their own strengths and interests.
b.
Providing choice among activities or
“entry points” to develop understanding or learn skills. Many teachers use MI
theory as a framework to develop options for students to work on particular
material or skills. Allowing students to learn in ways in which they are most
comfortable increases the chances for substantive learning as well as
increasing student self-esteem.
c.
Expanding
instructional strategies and media based on the intelligences. We teach in a manner that makes most sense to us. Upon
closer inspection, teachers are not surprised to see that they tend to teach
from their own strengths. MI theory has been a useful way to analyze and expand
instructional practices and the media used.
d.
Informally
assessing student intelligences toward developing educational activities. A definitive assessment of a student’s intelligences
is not only difficult, but also not necessary. Informal assessments based on
observations, student checklists and questionnaires, and other classroom
activities such as dialogue journals and intake interviews provide a context to
collect valuable information about students’ areas of ability. This information
can be shared explicitly with students, getting them involved in conversations
around how they learn best. It can also be feedback into the curriculum.
e. Expanding assessment options
to allow for students’ use of areas of strength in demonstrating their
learning. Analogous to providing curricular options,
giving students options for showing their learning and allows them to use ways that are comfortable and through which they can
experience success.
Classrooms of MI mean a stage of abundance intelligences. The lecturers
have to design learning which cater all intelligences of the students. There is
portion for verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, natural, musical, and existential. The students
perform what they are good at and watch their friends’ performance. Here, the
students may develop their minor intelligences as the result of performances
made by other friends. Possibility to develop specific intelligences and
activate other intelligences is open wide. An example of lesson plan below is
based on MI (Armstrong, 2005)[17]:
..if you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand
in economics, you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas
that express it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic chart that
illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law in the natural world
(naturalist) or in the human world of commerce (interpersonal); examine the law
in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your body with lots of food,
the hunger demand goes down; when there's very little supply, your stomach's
demand for food goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and
intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an existing song) that
demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan's "Too Much of Nothing?").
This kind of learning designs gives worth experiences to
all students. They are challenged to make decisions or solve problem where
their interest leads them. In occasions, they appear as independent learners
than ever, where passion becomes fuel. Or, they might be confused what to
attend if the task is unfamiliar. There could be problems encountered in class,
but together, students and the lecturer, will handle it as an authentic
problems. The lecturer does not need to
feel as the subject who knows everything. Students can give feedback freely. It
is because of the environment of learning allow so.
MI is an approach that has no weaknesses. This approach just tells the
general guidelines. As a new approach, lecturers might be confused in planning
the lesson plan or in executing the actual activities. The students might feel
difficult for a while what their actual intelligences are. They might announce
they are good at particular intelligences, but find others intelligences
activities more enjoyable. They following is a suggestion from Armstrong (2005)[18]
…you don’t have to teach or learn something in all eight ways,
just see what the possibilities are, and then decide which particular pathways
interest you the most, or seem to be the most effective teaching or learning
tools. The theory of multiple intelligences is so intriguing because it expands
our horizon of available teaching/learning tools beyond the conventional
linguistic and logical methods used in most schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks,
writing assignments, formulas, etc.). To get started, put the topic of whatever
you’re interested in teaching or learning about in the center of a blank sheet
of paper, and draw eight straight lines or "spokes" radiating out
from this topic. Label each line with a different intelligence. Then start
brainstorming ideas for teaching or learning that topic and write down ideas
next to each intelligence (this is a spatial-linguistic approach of
brainstorming; you might want to do this in other ways as well, using a
tape-recorder, having a group brainstorming session, etc.)
4. CONCLUSION
Students
of any level want fun learning from the teacher. An easy way to know what is
fun for student is to do things they are good at. Ability to do things easily
is called intelligence. Intelligences are given by God but should be developed
by environment to function. Multiple Intelligences is an approach to teach
students to develop those intelligences in classroom as well as to use it as
learning style. In university level, small group conference is a common
learning mode. To make it more effective and fun the lecturers can redesign the
learning mode, both to attend the instruction objectives and to facilitate the
intelligences in the classroom. Grouping the students based on their
intelligence type or interest can be made as an alternative to current grouping
arrangement. The students can cooperate with friends of similar passion and
gain more understanding about lesson they are studying on. The learning is more
interesting because every group comes up with different performance as an
exploration of their intelligences. Problem solving is authentic and
representation of actual personalities.
REFERENCES
Forman,
E & C Cazden. 1985. Exploring Vygotskinan Perspectives in Education: The
Cognitive value of Peer Interaction. In J.V. Werrtsch (Ed.), Culture, Communication and Cognition:
Vygotskian Perspectives. New York: Academic Press.
Gilles,
R. M. 2002. The Residual Effects of Cooperative Learning Experiences: A Two
Year Follow-up. The journal of Educational
Research.
Jacobs,
G and Ratmanida. 1996. The Appropriacy of Group Activities: View from some Southeast
Asian Second Language Educators.
Johnson,
R. T. & Johnson, D.W. 1986. Circle of
Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom (2nd). Edina MN:
Interaction Boom Company
Lazarowitz,
R., J. Baird and V. Bowlden. 1996. Teaching Biology in a Group Mastery Learning
Mode: High School Students’ Academic Achievement and Effective Outcomes. International Journal of Science Education
Moran, S., Kornhaber, M., & Gardner, H. 2006. Orchestrating
Multiple Intelligences. Educational
Leadership
Slavin,
. 1992. Research on Cooperative Learning: Consensus and
Controversy. In A. Googsell, M. Maher, and V. Tinto (Eds.), Collaborative
Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education University Park; PA: National Center on
Postsecondary Teaching, Learning and Assessment.
Olsen, R. & S. Kagan.
1992. About Cooperative Learning. In Kessler C. (Ed.), Cooperative Language Leaning: A Teacher’s resource book. Eaglewood
Cliffs, NJ: Pentice Hall.
Viens, Julie. 1999. Understanding Multiple Intelligences: The
Theory Behind the Practice. In Focus
on Basics, Volume 3, Issue A, March.
Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind
in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harverd University Press.
Internet:
Amstrong, Thomas. 1999. Multiple
Intelligences. Retrieve on http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.php
Edu Center. 2006. Intelligence: Multiple Intelligences Theory. Retieve on http://edu-center.org/intelligence-multiple-intelligences-theory.htm.
Focus on Effectiveness: Research Based
Strategies. 2005. Cooperative Grouping.
Retrieve on http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/coop.php
Lake Oswelgo School of
Talented and Gifted Middle School. 2002. Grouping
(revised). Retrieve on http://www.loswego.k12.or.us/pdf_library/tag/tag_ml_grouping.pdf
[1] Olsen, R. & S. Kagan. About
Cooperative Learning. In Kessler C. (Ed.), Cooperative
Language Leaning: A Teacher’s resource book. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Pentice
Hall, 1992. pp. 1-30
[2] Forman, E & C Cazden. Exploring Vygotskinan Perspectives in
Education: The Cognitive value of Peer Interaction. In J.V. Werrtsch (Ed.), Culture, Communication and Cognition:
Vygotskian Perspectives. New York: Academic Press, 1985
[3]
Vygotsky, L. S. Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harverd University Press, 1978
[4] Jacobs,
G and Ratmanida. The Appropriacy of
Group Activities: View from some Southeast Asian Second Language Educators. Relc, 27., pp.93-102, 1996
[5] Johnson, R. T.
& Johnson, D.W. Circle of Learning:
Cooperation in the Classroom (2nd). Edina MN: Interaction Boom
Company., 1986
[6] Slavin, . Research on
Cooperative Learning: Consensus and Controversy. In A. Googsell, M. Maher, and
V. Tinto (Eds.), Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education .
University Park; PA: National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning
and Assessment. (pg. 97- 99), 1992
[7] Lazarowitz, R.,
J. Baird and V. Bowlden. Teaching Biology in a Group Mastery Learning Mode:
High School Students’ Academic Achievement and Effective Outcomes. International Journal of Science Education,
18, pp.447-462, 1996
[8] Gilles, R. M. The Residual Effects of Cooperative Learning
Experiences: A Two Year Follow-up. The Journal
of Educational Research. 96/1.,
pp. 15-20, 2002
[9] Lake Oswelgo School of Talented and Gifted
Middle School. 2002. Grouping (revised).
Retrieve on http://www.loswego.k12.or.us/pdf_library/tag/tag_ml_grouping.pdf
[11] Focus on Effectiveness:
Research Based Strategies. 2005. Cooperative
Grouping. Retrieve on http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/coop.php
[12] Moran, S., Kornhaber,
M., & Gardner, H. Orchestrating multiple intelligences. Educational
Leadership. 64, 22-27, 2006
[13] Edu Center. 2006. Intelligence:
Multiple Intelligences Theory. Retieve on http://edu-center.org/intelligence-multiple-intelligences-theory.htm.
[14]Amstrong, Thomas. 1999. Multiple
Intelligences. Retrieve on http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.php
[15] Viens, Julie. Understanding
Multiple Intelligences: The Theory Behind the Practice. In
Focus on Basics, Volume 3, Issue A, March, pp. 6-10, 1999
[16] Ibid
[17]Amstrong, Thomas. 1999. Multiple
Intelligences. Retrieve on http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.php
[18]Amstrong, Thomas. 1999. Multiple Intelligences. Retrieve on http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.php
0 komentar:
Posting Komentar